How Do You Know? The Epistemological Foundations of 21st Century Literacy
Introduction
The 21st century competencies are recognized internationally as crucial skills for students, and integrated/interdisciplinary curriculum (IC) is recognized as an effective instruction/learning model to address these skills. IC reaches back to the Progressive Era of the 1930s. How tin can IC'due south history inform curriculum blueprint for the 21st century?
This commodity explores two periods when IC was implemented in a consistent way: the progressive era from 1919 to 1955, and the late 1980s and early 90s. Nosotros focus on the Usa although we acknowledge that progressive education and IC were happening elsewhere such as in Europe. We seek to understand the historical dynamics of IC's past and the lessons it might have for 21st century educators. We terminate by exploring the emerging global rationale for IC in a 21st century context.
The long and distinguished history of IC has been largely ignored (Beane, 1997; Wraga, 1997; Humes, 2013). This history involves an understanding of traditional and progressive didactics. Philosophically and practically, each takes a fundamentally dissimilar view of teaching and learning. Within themselves, the terms "traditional" and "progressive" encompass diverse interpretations.
The goal of the traditional approach is to pass on the inherited cognition of society. The traditional paradigm organizes knowledge into defined disciplines reaching back centuries. The teacher'south role as a subject skilful is to support students' conquering of disciplinary knowledge, nearly often through the transmission model with the help of an authoritative textbook. Memorization and rote learning are key strategies; students demonstrate their learning through correct answers on standardized and mutual tests. The traditional model is well entrenched, and continues to thrive worldwide (Adolfsson, 2018).
A progressive curriculum strives to develop skills and dispositions then that students may realize their individual personhood and contribute to the improvement of social club equally engaged citizens. Because of the diversity of views and practices, even the Progressive Educational activity Association (PEA) struggled to define "progressive" (Kridel and Bullough, 2002), but at that place is general agreement about its spirit. Rather than as passive receivers of knowledge, this pupil-centered arroyo sees students as active constructors and interpreters of knowledge. Thus, problem-solving and critical thinking are two of a constellation of cognitive skills foregrounded by a progressive approach. Although at that place is no blueprint, research arising from pupil interest is a central component. Progressive educators are concerned with students becoming good learners but also skillful people; progressive curriculum builds on community, collaboration, social justice, deep understanding of real-globe problems and active learning (Kohn, 2008).
Curriculum integration and progressivism should not be conflated; indeed, progressive educators need not adopt IC. Nonetheless, teachers attracted to IC are usually predisposed to a progressive arroyo, and the history of IC is closely tied to progressivist education (Applebee et al., 2003).
Defining Integrated Curriculum
The ambiguity of definitions for IC has troubled researchers and hindered practitioner agreement (Klein, 1990; Czerniak et al., 1999; Pang and Skilful, 2000; Hurley, 2001; Lenoir and Hasni, 2010). For some, integration within the subject areas itself or intradisciplinary curriculum is considered to exist IC. For case, scientific discipline would exist taught as a general science rather than as biology, physics, and chemistry. Fusion is some other depression level integration in which something is fused into different subject areas. For example, environmental stewardship or peace educational activity or a 21st century skill such as creativity could exist infused into all subjects and all grades. For many researchers, IC can be described as falling on a continuum as in Effigy one where the degree of integration increases.
Figure ane. An case of a continuum of integration.
A multidisciplinary curriculum is more integrated. Content, instruction and assessment are specific to each subject field. Withal, the disciplines share a common theme or concept such as "water." Students study the topic or theme through the separate lens of each subject. Connections among disciplines may or may not exist made explicit by the various disciplinary teachers or at learning centers with i instructor.
In an interdisciplinary curriculum, disciplines remain somewhat distinct, but their connections are stronger and made explicit. Boundaries are blurred when subjects are organized effectually a fundamental interdisciplinary concept such equally sustainability, or around complex interdisciplinary skills such as critical thinking or competencies such as intercultural competency. Interdisciplinary projects provide a context for the exploration and blending of the subjects. Often interdisciplinary team members share instruction and assessment to ensure that disciplinary standards are met. A transdisciplinary curriculum is the most integrated model. Students brainstorm with an authentic real-world issue rather than with the disciplines. Students' own interests often generate the starting signal. For example, they may wish to explore solutions to the trouble of traffic congestion in their city using many different disciplinary perspectives. Some versions of project-based learning (PBL) fall into the transdisciplinary realm.
Seeing IC as a continuum may be a useful way of demonstrating its variety of form, and it might describe stages of professional development that educators go through every bit they experiment with increasing degrees of integration (Brazee and Cappelluti, 1995; Bergstrom, 1998; Snapp, 2006). However, presenting integration as a continuum in any form has raised concerns. One objection is that a continuum could imply an inappropriate hierarchy: more progressive than, more innovative than, improve than (Chrysostomou, 2004; Rennie et al., 2012). Another is that a continuum oversimplifies the complexity of IC and ignores its history (Hargreaves et al., 1996; Dowden, 2007, 2011). Beane (1997) viewed his "integrative" model (what we would depict as "transdisciplinary") as the only truly integrated one. He and Hopkins (1935, 1937) perceived models on the continuum to be only a rearrangement of subject areas and without acknowledging the axis of the students and the broader social purposes of progressivism (Dowden, 2007).
The adjacent section of this article considers the historical conceptions and implementation of IC over the last 100 years.
Past Iterations of Integrated Curriculum
Foundations of Progressive Education in Us
The history of IC is linked to the progressive movement of the 1930s and beyond (Wrightstone, 1935; Klein, 1990; Beane, 1991; Vars, 1991). One of the main tenets of progressive education was that knowledge was not jump by disciplines. As Dewey said in 1900, "Relate the schoolhouse to life and all studies are of necessity correlated" (Dewey, 1915/1900, p. 32).
The term "integrated curriculum" was not used formally until 1931, but the antecedents for the concept were emerging long before this. The seeds of progressive teaching were planted by Colonel Francis Parker whose school offered a dramatically different approach to teaching, learning, and assessing. He emphasized education for mental, physical, and moral growth of the whole person (Cooke, 2005). Parker promoted collaborative group learning, student-centered activities, and no testing.
John Dewey, considered the father of the American progressive instruction movement, encouraged curriculum based on inquiry. Rather than beginning with disciplines, curriculum should begin with students' questions. These should be answered by applying systematic problem-solving procedures—the scientific method—that would connect to a real-world understanding of the disciplines (Dewey, 1938/1993). Dewey (1916) believed in social integration and that the purpose of teaching was to cultivate a democratic society.
In 1918, Dewey'southward student William Kilpatrick published The Project Method (Kilpatrick, 1918). Kilpatrick argued that students should apply a problem-solving method to integrate academic, moral and ethical learnings in order to complete a complex purposeful project. Because the projection was personally relevant to the student, learning would be lasting and meaningful compared to the transient memorization required by the traditional model.
By the 1930s, the term "integrated curriculum" had become meaningful and loosely associated with the progressive motility. Initially, integration was deemed acceptable for elementary school pedagogy but, until Wrightstone (1935) challenged this view. He closely matched 180 students in Grades 4 to half-dozen who went to either a traditional subject-based school or a progressive schoolhouse with a unified curriculum. He found that "The pupils in the new type schools were slightly superior in accomplishment to the pupils in the standard-type schools" (p. 586) on achievement tests in reading, language and arithmetic, indicating that an integrated approach did not jeopardize academic success. The results of Wrightstone's study would be mirrored by the Eight-twelvemonth Study of the same era.
1933–1941 the 8-Year Written report
The interest in fostering and sustaining the ideals of a autonomous society found fertile ground in the project that became known as the Eight-year Written report. Curriculum scholar Pinar (2010) wrote that "this remarkable undertaking remains today every bit perhaps the major schoolhouse-based curriculum research projection in the history of U.S. curriculum studies" (p. 295).
The Slap-up Depression (1928–1939) had resulted in high unemployment and an enormous increment of loftier school students. There were three types of students: twenty% in a higher preparatory program, 20% in a vocational programme, and lx% non-college spring students who needed "life-adjustment education, to adjust them to life in general" (Tyler, 1989, p. 194). To address this new state of affairs, the Eight-year Study was conceptualized by the PEA and funded with over a 1000000 dollars by the Rockerfeller, Carnegie, and other foundations. Widely respected educator Ralph Tyler headed the evaluation squad. The 8-year Study had two aims: (i) to create programs that would exist relevant for the 60% of not-college bound students and "to discover, through exploration and experimentation, how the high school in the United States can serve youth more effectively" and (2) "to establish the relationship betwixt school and college that would permit and encourage reconstruction in the secondary school" without risking students' chances of college credence (Aikin, 1942, p. 116).
According to Tyler (1989), more than 30 schools, including ii school systems, from beyond the The states took part. Schools were rural and urban, big and small, individual and public. The teachers were no less variable. The common thread was the delivery to enact the progressive principles even though educators could non agree on what those were (Kridel and Bullough, 2002, p. 69). With no prescribed curriculum, teachers were free to innovate in ways that they believed best served students. Central principles grounded their work. Lessons needed to be personally meaningful and involve the whole person. Students needed to develop a social awareness and learn experientially how to be citizens in a democratic society. To varying degrees, the Eight-twelvemonth Report schools emphasized student-centered learning that incorporated the authentication aspects of progressive teaching: easily-on learning, valuing variety, coherent/integrated curriculum, inquiry and problem solving, disquisitional thinking, collaboration, taking social responsibility, community engagement, and democratic values (Lipka et al., 1998; Kridel and Bullough, 2002, 2007; Bullough and Kridel, 2003).
Some schools were cautious in exploiting their new freedom and non all schools adopted an integrated arroyo. Nevertheless, the more innovative schools organized curriculum around themes and problems relevant to students. Aikin (1942) provided an extensive list of topics grouped under wide categories such every bit personal living, social-borough relationships, and economic relationships. In ane classroom, the educatee could learn how to appreciate art, amend one'south poise, and analyze sources of data that influence public opinion (Aikin, 1942, pp. 58–61).
How did students fare under the study? All-encompassing data were collected including accomplishment on standardized tests, student interest inventories and psychological tests (Kridel and Bullough, 2002; Kridel, 2010). Information indicated that the Eight-twelvemonth students were not handicapped by their innovative curricula (Aikin, 1942, p, 117). A further follow-up study investigated higher achievement. Success was determined by comparison 1,475 matched pairs on eighteen variables. Students from the Viii-twelvemonth Study schools performed academically equally well as, or better than, their counterparts from traditional programs. The Eight-year students outperformed their counterparts in fourth dimension management, resourcefulness, problem-solving, degree of intellectual curiosity, bulldoze, and active concern for world events. Equally well, "the experimental grouping was as well fully equally effective in their employment" (Tyler, 1989, p. 198). Student records from the half dozen most experimental schools that actually implemented IC were compared with pupil records from traditional schools. The 323 experimental students substantially outperformed their peers on virtually all measures of college success (Kridel, 2010).
Watras (2006) listed several factors that contributed to the turn down of progressivism: closure of some participating schools, leadership and staff turnover, lack of professional person development and resources, and the ascent of a more conservative mental attitude in the confront of war. Beane (1997) too added that many teachers were frightened by this approach. Yet, the Eight-year Written report and progressivism had a lasting impact on subsequent decades (Kridel, 1998).
1940s and 1950s Core Curriculum—The Salad Days
Integrated Curriculum did continue into the 1940s and 1950s. Information technology was most frequently identified as general education, unified or core. "In retrospect, these were the salad days of curriculum integration" (Beane, 1997, p. 29). Cadre programs proliferated across the The states. Beane (1997) claimed that over fifty% of junior and senior high schools were involved in cake-time non-separate subject approaches programs, although problem-centered programs were less common.
The Virginia Curriculum Revision Program from 1932 to 1952 is one example of the era's large-calibration IC effort (Kliebard, 1995; Dowden, 2007). In 1931, Hollis Caswell introduced curriculum planning on a matrix. The vertical centrality identified cultural values and aspects of everyday life that replaced disciplines. The horizontal axis identified themes of educatee interest. In 1937, when 85% of Virginia'south teachers were implementing this program, the state surveyed teachers and parents and nerveless accomplishment data. The program was considered a "corking improvement" in elementary schools over the bailiwick-based curriculum used previously. However, there was less enthusiasm for it in the high schools which Caswell blamed on the resistance of teachers to change from subject specialists to cadre teachers.
Mickelson (1957) summarized several studies comparison achievement of core curriculum students to that of students in traditional programs. The studies considered academic achievement as well as social attitudes and behaviors. The findings replicated those of the Eight-twelvemonth Study. Thus, Mickleson concluded that "the most promising educational development for meeting the needs of adolescents today is the core curriculum" (p. 158).
Despite its popularity and evidence of its effectiveness, cadre programs faded into obscurity in the 1960s in the wake of the Cold War competition for scientific and technological superiority. Innovation was sacrificed to a fearful retreat to conventional disciplinary structures (Wraga, 1992, 1997; Watras, 2006). Bruner's (1960) The Process of Teaching ensured that disciplinary organization was optimal for learning. By the 1970s, Bruner (1971) had reversed his position, preferring a curriculum grounded in contemporary problems, only it was as well late. There were few ventures into integrated territory until the 1980s and 1990s.
1980s and 1990s—The Wild Borderland
A concern for relevancy and low student appointment in the 1980s and early 1990s prompted a resurgence of interest in IC. The influential Carnegie Report (1989) and the California State Section of Education Report (1987) reported that middle school students were unmotivated and that alternatives to the disciplinary organization should be implemented. Emerging brain enquiry indicated that people learn amend by making connections rather than by memorization (encounter, e.g., Sylwester, 1995; Caine and Caine, 1997). In addition, digital applied science and the Cyberspace were changing the world. The U.South. Department of Labor (1991) identified the skills needed for the future: literacy, basic computation, creative thinking, learning how to learn, and decision-making. Productive citizens would need the interdisciplinary life skills required by the changing workplace. Although the context was different, this need was similar to the life skills students needed in the progressive era.
State education departments began exploring IC and providing professional development for eager teachers. Dissemination was multi-pronged and lively through major national conferences, whole problems of popular publications (eastward.g., Education Leadership, Book 49, Issue 2, 1991), and influential experts such equally Jacobs (1989), Fogarty (1991), Drake (1993, 1998), and Kovalic (1994). The atmosphere was vibrant, only rather incoherent.
Erickson (1995, 2008) advocated designing IC through Large Ideas in the form of broad-based concepts rather than factual content, and interdisciplinary rather than disciplinary skills. For her, a concept-based curriculum assured depth. Erickson's work was grounded in the work of Taba (1962). Their ideas remain central to 21st century curriculum planning.
About variations of IC were based on a progressive/constructivist philosophy with a focus on pupil inquiry and choice, collaborative piece of work, and the teacher as a facilitator. As a summative assessment, most iterations added a rich performance assessment chore which could be likened to Kilpatrick's projection method.
The Humanitas project is only ane of many examples of an interdisciplinary programme that flourished in this menses. Implemented in diverse schools, Humanitas was theme-based (e.g., Making a Place for All: The Immigrant Experience) and used a collaborative team-education arroyo. The plan emphasized conceptual evolution, critical thinking, and advice skills. Humanitas was evaluated past UCLA'southward Heart for the Study of Evaluation which constitute that Humanitas students were stronger conceptual thinkers and communicators than their peers from traditional programs (Aschbacher, 1991).
Beane (1997) believed, like his progressive antecedents, that students should design their own curriculum with their teachers. Beane advocated that curriculum should commencement with students' answers to the questions: What questions and concerns do you accept most yourself, and what questions and concerns do yous have nigh your world? Such questions are reminiscent of those that inspired curriculum nether the Eight-year Study.
In the closing decades of the 20th century, IC was evident in various curriculum experiments such as team teaching, block scheduling, and student activities (Vars, 1991). At that place was an abundance of research at this time but much of it was anecdotal from enthusiastic teachers or revolved around confusion nigh definitions or were descriptive "how-to" articles. There was no big-calibration study such as the Eight-year Study to support IC's implementation in the evidence-based environs. Vars and Beane (2001) summed up the enquiry of the 1980s and 1990s with this now-repetitive refrain:
Almost without exception, students in any blazon of interdisciplinary or integrative curriculum practice too as, and often better than, students in a conventional departmentalized program. These results hold whether the combined curriculum is taught by one teacher in a self-contained or block-time class or by an interdisciplinary squad1.
Ignorant of history, many practitioners were reinventing the wheel, each in their own ways, to address the immediate issue of pupil apathy and a knowledge explosion. Missing was a coherent vision grounded in deep agreement of shared principles. For Wraga (1992, 1997), a factor was the failure of the models to draw from past initiatives.
The heady days of IC came to an end. The positive advantages of more engaged students and re-energized teachers were outset past the lack of solid enquiry, territorial wars among subject organizations, logistical difficulties such equally scheduling, and parental longing for the standardized reporting they understood.
A more than powerful movement sounded IC's decease knell. The age of accountability took hold across the globe. Standardized testing refocused attention on the basic subjects of literacy, math, and science (Lam et al., 2013). Educational jurisdictions developed disciplinary standards (competencies, expectations, capabilities, outcomes). Pacer guides shaped practice. Big data allowed for comparisons amid students, classes, schools, regions, states, and internationally. A new era had begun, and silence descended effectually IC.
21st Century Curriculum
OECD captured the mood of the early decades of the 21st century.
Nosotros are facing unprecedented challenges…driven by accelerating globalization and a faster rate of technological developments…The time to come is uncertain…Schools can fix [students] for jobs that take not yet been created, for technologies that have not yet been invented, to solve problems that have non yet been anticipated…Students volition demand to develop curiosity, imagination, resilience and self-regulation; they will demand to respect and appreciate the ideas, perspectives and values of others…Their motivation will be more than getting a good job…They will also demand to care near the well-being of their friends and families, their communities and the planet. Pedagogy can equip learners with agency and a sense of purpose, and the competencies they demand, to shape their own lives and contribute to the lives of others (OECD, 2018, p. 2).
Current Drivers of IC
Alongside the accountability calendar inherited from the 1990s came an international phone call for educational reforms that could deepen learning and accost the complication, disruptions, and fast-changing technologies of the new century (Hargreaves and Shirley, 2009; Hattie, 2012; Fullan, 2013). Inquiry-based, projection- based/problem-based learning and IC were and continue to be pedagogies put forward to meet the challenges of relevancy.
There are multiple drivers encouraging educators to reconsider IC in the 21st century. Ane is the re-formulation of knowledge and an international rethinking about what is worth knowing. Siri and Google have made the memorization of disciplinary content obsolete. Internet research on a topic such as war will yield interdisciplinary results. The real world is not divisional by disciplines. A knowledge base in the disciplines is not enough. The learning and life skills of the 1930s, 1980s, and 1990s have been revived in frameworks for 21st century skills/competencies.
In that location is growing international consensus on the importance and the definition of the competencies of 21st-century learning (OECD, 2005, 2017; European union, 2006; Dede, 2010; Voogt and Roblin, 2012; Brooks and Holmes, 2014; Partnership for 21st century skills, 2015; New Zealand Ministry of Pedagogy, n.d.). These include critical thinking, communication, collaboration, trouble solving, inventiveness, graphic symbol didactics/ethics and citizenship, intercultural competency, global sensation, agility/adaptability, every bit well as computer and digital technological capability (Ananiadou and Claro, 2009; Fullan and Langworthy, 2013; Howard et al., 2019).
A 2nd commuter of IC is global wicked issues. The concept of problem-solving has broadened beyond its pre-21st century roots. A wicked problem is sick-structured, ambiguous (Rittel and Webber, 1973) and virtually impossible to solve (Klein, 2004, 2014; Nicolescu, 2010). The coronavirus pandemic with its tangled and interconnected health, economic, privacy/surveillance and social justice consequences is such a trouble. Solutions, if they be, are transdisciplinary. Students need experience in transdisciplinary trouble-solving to exist equipped to alive with "wickedness" of the 21st century context.
A tertiary driver is the recurring issue of engagement. Surveys have reported educatee detachment (Gallup, 2014; Jasperson, 2014). IC increases student appointment (Lattuca et al., 2004; Alexander et al., 2008; Catterall et al., 2012; Guthrie et al., 2013; Lam et al., 2013).
IC engages teachers too. Despite initial struggles moving out of their disciplinary comfort zone (Gunn and King, 2003; Smithrin and Upitis, 2005; Applebee et al., 2007; Fenwick et al., 2013), teachers come to appreciate the opportunity to interact with colleagues and to explore new subjects and education (Ching, 2009; Lardner and Malnarich, 2009; Weinberg and Sample McMeeking, 2017). An added bonus is efficiency. In overcrowded and fragmented curricula, IC can provide coherence and reduce duplication (Hinde, 2005; Adolfsson, 2018). The pan-disciplinary competencies listed higher up offering an amenable manner to knit together disciplinary content.
Current Versions of IC
Versions of IC be in current trends. Inquiry is a skill that drives virtually non-traditional curriculum design (Drake et al., 2014). Structured inquiry and experiential learning take u.s. back to the primal tenets of progressive didactics. In the 21st century context, project-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogy that lends itself to an interdisciplinary approach because its underlying philosophy is educatee-centered, inquiry based, and oriented to big picture concepts and skills applied to existent world issues. The Buck Found for Instruction2 offers rich examples of PBL in the classroom. Similarly, Republic of finland's phenomenon-based learning follows this path (Christou, 2016). Finnish students in Grades 1–ix piece of work on 9-week long, interdisciplinary projects prompted by their ain questions (Mathewson, 2019). This is like to Kilpatrick's project method in 1918. The positive outcomes such as depth of learning, thinking skills, and appointment, achieved through projects are well documented (see Thomas, 2000; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Holm, 2011; Vega, 2012a).
In the U.s., many states are using the Common Core Country Standards (CCSS) and the Next Generation Science Standards to design curriculum for literacy and numeracy K to 12. The intent of the CCSS is to increase accountability across states and ensure students learn the skills for life success. Controversial bug such as testing aside, the CCSS actually tin be interpreted in ways that encourage IC as illustrated in Creating standards-based integrated curriculum: The Common Core Standards Edition (Drake, 2012). The standards themselves let for flexibility and can be taught in relevant and creative ways. Equally well, the CCSS provides literacy standards for history/social studies, science and technical subjects indicating that literacy is the responsibility of teachers of dissimilar field of study areas not just of the language teachers—a door to IC.
Other means in which integration occurs include the following: Stalk and STEAM (Satchwell and Loepp, 2002; Vega, 2012b; Miller, 2014; MacDonald et al., 2019); the infusion of literacy (Cervetti et al., 2007; Alvermann et al., 2011; Romance and Vitale, 2012a, b; Vega, 2013); the infusion of the arts (Upitis, 2011; Catterall et al., 2012; Riley, 2013); and the infusion of environmental responsibleness (Blair, 2009).
Challenges to Implementing IC
So far, widespread implementation of IC has been hampered past applied and theoretical challenges. These include ambiguity around definitions, issues with measuring interdisciplinary cognition and behaviors, logistics such as scheduling and reporting protocols, territorial battles, teacher identity every bit a subject expert, and resistant educators.
Dissenting voices question the prominence of the 21st competencies at the expense of prescribed disciplinary content (Priestley and Sinnema, 2014). A concern is the economical undertone expressed in the rationales for a competency-based curriculum. Critics of this neoliberal view say that in emphasizing students' need for an education that prepares them to compete successfully in the workplace, students become the homo capital engines of a nation's Gdp (Dede et al., 2005; Adolfsson, 2018).
Another concern is related to equity. Social realists debate for the importance of universal access to the external, objective, authoritative knowledge of established disciplines—what Young (2010) calls "powerful knowledge" (Young, 2010; Rata, 2012). When curriculum is premised on students' experiential knowledge, the risk of limitation becomes peculiarly astute considering information technology disfavors those with low social and cultural capital. Social realists do not argue for a retrenchment of fixed disciplinary content—a "Future i" scenario; rather, they propose a "Time to come 3" scenario that sits between a boundless "Hereafter ii" and an overly-narrow Future i (Immature and Muller, 2010).
Benefits of IC
Integrated Curriculum leads to positive learning outcomes and personal evolution. The literature in the final ii decades has arrived at the decision we have heard before: students in IC programs perform academically as well as, and sometimes meliorate than, their counterparts from traditional programs (Brough and Pool, 2005; Hinde, 2005; Erickson, 2008; Kelleher, 2008; Rotherham and Willingham, 2009; Drake, 2012; Griffin et al., 2012; Drake and Reid, 2018). As well, a rich torso of literature attests to IC's benefits in the melancholia domain including self-regulation, prosocial attitudes, emotional health, creativity and motivation (meet, for instance, Cordogan and Stanciak, 2000; Edwards and Willis, 2000; Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 2002; Marshall, 2005; Trent and Riley, 2009; Kakas, 2010; Durlak et al., 2011; Catterall et al., 2012).
Decision
The Global Chat equally Proxy PEA
Conditions in the 21st century are ripe for interdisciplinary approaches. In many ways, today's educational reform is reminiscent of the early 1930s. Today, equally then, reformers are seeking ways to offer engaging relevant curriculum in an accountable way. In the 1980s and 1990s, curriculum experts created IC models reflecting their private personal philosophies. Neither accountability nor a focus on democratic values was a high priority. We propose that inconsistency resulted because educators did not realize that there were historical precedents and because in that location was no proxy PEA to provide guidance and coherence.
Today, educators are not guided by history in detail, but rather by an emerging global chat most curriculum innovation that emphasizes 21st century skills/competencies; nosotros advise that this conversation can human action as a 21st century-version PEA. Indeed, Kamens and McNeely (2009) see the emergence of a "globe educational ideology" (p. nine) and Sellar and Lingard (2014) see OECD and its PISA testing as a new epistemological and infrastructure of global governance.
In this global conversation, a consistent vision is emerging. The 21st century is stimulating a student-centered culture of learning that harkens back to earlier progressive movements. Personalization, technology, and universal design principles are revamping instruction. Cess practices are shifting in accent from external summative testing to localized, formative feedback for improvement. The teacher's office is shifting from content proficient to learning facilitator (Dede et al., 2005; Friesen and Jardine, 2014; Partnership for 21st century skills, 2015).
Aligning with the conversation, frameworks from external organizations and educational jurisdictions, in both public and independent contexts, are remarkably alike and go beyond academic achievement to learning how to exist and how to be in community. Overarching frameworks focusing on competencies accept been developed, for example, by external global networks such as the Eye for Curriculum Reform (Fadel et al., 2015) and The Earth Economical Forum (2016). I of the nigh influential external organizations is the OECD (Grek, 2009; Kamens and McNeely, 2009; Munch, 2014). Cognitive, health, and social emotions form the foundational umbrella for OECD's (2018) compass for 2030. Forth with competencies, the compass references well-being, student agency, and connections with community.
Internationally, many jurisdictional curriculum documents present a unifying framework that acts equally an umbrella over all disciplines. The 21st century competencies are infused into every subject area and every class; see, for case, Singapore, South korea, Finland, Australia, and Alberta (Drake and Savage, 2016). Also evident in these frameworks is an overarching concern for the whole child. For example, Hong Kong's unifying framework calls for perseverance, respect for others, responsibleness, cocky-direction, and commitment to be taught across all field of study areas in all grades (Drake and Savage, 2016). The International Baccalaureate Arrangement (2012) has a unifying framework for its transdisciplinary main program that involves over 4000 independent schools across the world. This framework is focused on a learner beingness not only knowledgeable, inquirers, artistic and critical thinkers just also reflective, caring, principled, and balanced. New Zealand is integrating local contexts reflecting Indigenous cultures with international competency frameworks (New Zealand Ministry building of Educational activity, n.d.).
These frameworks cry for IC in social club to weave together their transdisciplinary aspects. The emerging vision is a hopeful work in progress that attempts to reconcile seemingly contradictions through a both/and perspective: both accountability and whole kid priorities; both disciplinary and interdisciplinary; both content and skills. IC offers a context to accomplish these resolutions. For case, evidence in this commodity indicates that academic achievement for students in any era who experience IC has been at least equivalent to, if not amend than that of students in traditional programs (accountability), with the bonus of prosocial attitudes, better attendance, internal motivation, and enjoyment of school (whole kid).
Little (2013) has said there are lessons for 21st century educators in the recurrence over IC'due south history of progressive principles. All the same, he noted that later versions of IC lack the 1930s grounding in social justice and commonwealth. We propose that social responsibility and citizenship human action as a proxy for the progressive 1930s democracy. Current global frameworks do recognize developing citizenship and national identity in any credo applies to them. These principles—rooted firmly in the past upstanding foundations—are not to exist forgotten every bit the global educational networks go along to collaborate and influence curriculum design that reflects both national and global priorities.
For us, the 21st century context encourages a rethinking of what has been rethought for one hundred years about IC. We urge educators to consider the parallels amid by eras and detect in them the manner forward for future curriculum. As it has in the by, we believe IC presents an engaging, relevant, and constructive model for curriculum today.
Author Contributions
SD and JR contributed as and collaboratively to the research and writing of this work and approved the submitted version.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the reviewers for encouraging feedback and thoughtful suggestions.
Footnotes
- ^ http://world wide web.ericdigests.org/2001-ane/curriculum.html
- ^ https://www.pblworks.org
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